- General Epidemiology
- CDC: Summary of Guidance for Public Health Strategies to Address SARS-CoV-2
- CEBM: Global COVID-19 Case Fatality Rates
- Cochrane COVID-19 Reviews of Infection Prevention and Control Measures
- Imperial College London Centre for Global Infection Disease Analysis COVID-19 Reports
- Recurrent Outbreaks (“Second and Third Waves”) Are Likely
- Unwin HJT, et al. MRC Centre for Global Infectious Disease Analysis Report 23: State-level Tracking of COVID-19 in the United States. Imperial College London. May 21 2020.
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“Increased mobility following relaxation of social distancing will lead to resurgence of transmission…We predict that deaths over the next two-month period could exceed current cumulative deaths by greater than two-fold…”
- Kissler SM, et al. Projecting the Transmission Dynamics of SARS-CoV-2 through the Postpandemic Period. Science. May 2020.
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“Recurrent wintertime outbreaks of SARS-CoV-2 will probably occur…To avoid exceeding critical care capacities, social distancing may be necessary into 2022…a resurgence in contagion could be possible as late as 2024.”
- Ferguson NM, et al. MRC Centre for Global Infectious Disease Analysis Report 9: Impact of Non-pharmaceutical Interventions (NPIs) to Reduce COVID-19 Mortality and Healthcare Demand. Imperial College London. March 16 2020. (Well Written Summary by Jeremy Young)
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“Transmission will quickly rebound if interventions are relaxed…Intermittent social distancing may allow interventions to be relaxed temporarily in relative short time windows, but measures will need to be reintroduced when case numbers rebound.”
- Tsai AC, et al. COVID-19 Transmission in the U.S. Before vs. After Relaxation of Statewide Social Distancing Measures. Clin Infect Dis. Oct 2020.
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“We detected an immediate and significant reversal in SARS-CoV-2 epidemic suppression after relaxation of social distancing measures across the U.S. Premature relaxation of social distancing measures undermined the country’s ability to control the disease burden associated with COVID-19.”
- Effects of Introducing and Relaxing Non-Pharmaceutical Interventions on SARS-CoV-2 Transmission Are Delayed by 1–3 Weeks
- Mask-Wearing, Even with the Use of Non-Medical Masks with Only 20% Efficacy, Substantially Impacts Outbreak Control and Reduces Infections, Hospitalizations, and Death by Nearly 50% (Public Health Measures Infographic)
- Guy GP Jr., et al. Association of State-Issued Mask Mandates and Allowing On-Premises Restaurant Dining with County-Level COVID-19 Case and Death Growth Rates — United States, March 1–December 31, 2020. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. Mar 2021.
- Rebeiro PF, et al. The Impact of State Mask-Wearing Requirements on the Growth of COVID-19 Cases, Hospitalizations, and Deaths in the United States. Clin Infect Dis. Feb 2021.
- Brooks JT, et al. Effectiveness of Mask Wearing to Control Community Spread of SARS-CoV-2. JAMA. Feb 2021.
- Joo H, et al. Decline in COVID-19 Hospitalization Growth Rates Associated with Statewide Mask Mandates — 10 States, March–October 2020. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. Feb 2021.
- Leffler CT, et al. Association of Country-wide Coronavirus Mortality with Demographics, Testing, Lockdowns, and Public Wearing of Masks. Am J Trop Med Hyg. Oct 2020.
- Zhang K, et al. The Impact of Mask-Wearing and Shelter-in-Place on COVID-19 Outbreaks in the United States. Int J Infect Dis. Oct 2020.
- Mitze T, et al. Face Masks Considerably Reduce COVID-19 Cases in Germany. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. Dec 2020.
- Lan F-Y, et al. Effects of Universal Masking on Massachusetts Healthcare Workers’ COVID-19 Incidence. Occup Med. Oct 2020.
- Rader B, et al. Mask-Wearing and Control of SARS-CoV-2 Transmission in the USA: A Cross-Sectional Study. Lancet Digit Health. Jan 2021.
- Shacham E, et al. Association of County-Wide Mask Ordinances with Reductions in Daily CoVID-19 Incident Case Growth in a Midwestern Region Over 12 Weeks. Nov 2020. (Not Peer Reviewed)
- For more info see PPE, the review by Gandhi et al., and the Nature News review Face Masks: What The Data Say.
- COVID-19 Symptomatic Infection Fatality Rate (IFR-S) in the U.S. is 0.8–1.5% and the Case Fatality Rate (CFR) is ~6%
- Johns Hopkins: Coronavirus Mortality Analyses
- Nguyen NT, et al. Outcomes and Mortality Among Adults Hospitalized With COVID-19 at US Medical Centers. JAMA Netw Open. Mar 2021.
- Brazeau NF, et al. MRC Centre for Global Infectious Disease Analysis Report 34: COVID-19 Infection Fatality Ratio Estimates from Seroprevalence. Imperial College London. Oct 2020.
- Basu A. Estimating The Infection Fatality Rate Among Symptomatic COVID-19 Cases in the United States. Health Aff (Millwood). May 2020.
- Yang W, et al. Estimating the Infection-Fatality Risk of SARS-CoV-2 in New York City during the Spring 2020 Pandemic Wave: A Model-Based Analysis. Lancet Infect Dis. Oct 2020.
- O’Driscoll M, et al. Age-Specific Mortality and Immunity Patterns of SARS-CoV-2. Nature. Nov 2020.
- Levin AT, et al. Assessing the Age Specificity of Infection Fatality Rates for COVID-19: Meta-Analysis, and Public Policy Implications. Eur J Epidemiol. Dec 2020.
- Asch DA, et al. Variation in US Hospital Mortality Rates for Patients Admitted With COVID-19 During the First 6 Months of the Pandemic. JAMA Intern Med. Dec 2020.
- Donnelly JP, et al. Readmission and Death After Initial Hospital Discharge Among Patients With COVID-19 in a Large Multihospital System. JAMA. Dec 2020.
- Jin J, et al. Individual and Community-Level Risk for COVID-19 Mortality in the United States. Nat Med. Dec 2020. (See COVID-19 Risk Tools)
- Viner RM, et al. Susceptibility to SARS-CoV-2 Infection Among Children and Adolescents Compared With Adults: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. JAMA Pediatr. Sep 2020.
- COVID-19 CFR for Patients Requiring Invasive Mechanical Ventilation is 35–45%; ~58% for those Requiring ECMO
- Armstrong RA, et al. Mortality in Patients Admitted to Intensive Care with COVID-19: An Updated Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Observational Studies. Anaesthesia. Feb 2021.
- Lim ZJ, et al. Case Fatality Rates for COVID-19 Patients Requiring Invasive Mechanical Ventilation: A Meta-analysis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. Oct 2020.
- King CS, et al. Outcomes of Mechanically Ventilated Patients with COVID-19 Associated Respiratory Failure. PLoS ONE. Nov 2020.
- Chopra V, et al. Sixty-Day Outcomes Among Patients Hospitalized With COVID-19. Ann Intern Med. Nov 2020.
- Anesi GL, et al. Characteristics, Outcomes, and Trends of Patients With COVID-19–Related Critical Illness at a Learning Health System in the United States. Ann Intern Med. Jan 2021.
- Jang WS, et al. Clinical Course of COVID-19 Patients Treated with ECMO: A Multicenter Study in Daegu, South Korea. Heart Lung. Jan 2021.
- Faust JS, et al. Mortality Among Adults Ages 25-44 in the United States During the COVID-19 Pandemic. Dec 2020. (Not Peer Reviewed)
- Seroprevalence of SARS-CoV-2–Specific Antibodies Among Adults Remains Very Low at ~14%
- Bruckner TA, et al. Estimated Seroprevalence of SARS-CoV-2 Antibodies Among Adults in Orange County, California. Sci Rep. Feb 2021.
- Angulo FJ, et al. Estimation of US SARS-CoV-2 Infections, Symptomatic Infections, Hospitalizations, and Deaths Using Seroprevalence Surveys. JAMA Netw Open. Jan 2021.
- Bajema KL, et al. Estimated SARS-CoV-2 Seroprevalence in the US As of September 2020. JAMA Intern Med. Nov 2020.
- Anand S, et al. Prevalence of SARS-CoV-2 Antibodies in a Large Nationwide Sample of Patients on Dialysis in the USA: A Cross-Sectional Study. Lancet. Sep 2020.
- Wu SL, et al. Substantial Underestimation of SARS-CoV-2 Infection in the United States. Nat Commun. Sep 2020.
- Stadlbauer D, et al. Repeated Cross-sectional Sero-monitoring of SARS-CoV-2 in New York City. Nature. Nov 2020.
- Moscola J, et al. Prevalence of SARS-CoV-2 Antibodies in Health Care Personnel in the New York City Area. JAMA. Aug 2020.
- Akinbami LJ, et al. SARS-CoV-2 Seroprevalence among Healthcare, First Response, and Public Safety Personnel, Detroit Metropolitan Area, Michigan, USA, May–June 2020. Emerg Infect Dis. Sep 2020.
- Pollán M, et al. Prevalence of SARS-CoV-2 in Spain (ENE-COVID): A Nationwide, Population-based Seroepidemiological Study. Lancet. Jun 2020.
- Sood N, et al. Seroprevalence of SARS-CoV-2-Specific Antibodies Among Adults in Los Angeles County, California, on April 10-11, 2020. JAMA. May 2020.
- Stringhini S, et al. Seroprevalence of Anti-SARS-CoV-2 IgG Antibodies in Geneva, Switzerland (SEROCoV-POP): A Population-based Study. Lancet. Jun 2020.
- Havers FP, et al. Seroprevalence of Antibodies to SARS-CoV-2 in 10 Sites in the United States, March 23-May 12, 2020. JAMA Intern Med. Jul 2020.
- Okell LC, et al. Have Deaths from COVID-19 in Europe Plateaued Due to Herd Immunity? Lancet. Jun 2020.
- Spellberg B, et al. Antibodies, Immunity, and COVID-19. JAMA Intern Med. Nov 2020.
- Kamath K, et al. Prevalence of Antibodies to SARS-CoV-2 in Healthy Blood Donors in New York. Oct 2020. (Not Peer Reviewed)
- Greater than 75% of Americans Are at Risk of Severe COVID-19 Based on the Prevalence of Known Comorbidities
- Li HL, et al. The Proportion of Adult Americans at Risk of Severe COVID-19 Illness. J Gen Intern Med. Oct 2020.
- Peckham H, et al. Male Sex Identified by Global COVID-19 Meta-Analysis as a Risk Factor for Death and Itu Admission. Nat Commun. Dec 2020.
- SARS-COV-2 Clusters Have Been Traced to Flights, Parties, Nightclubs, Bars, Karaoke Bars, and Gyms
- Lendacki FR, et al. COVID-19 Outbreak Among Attendees of an Exercise Facility — Chicago, Illinois, August–September 2020. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. Feb 2021.
- Swadi T, et al. Genomic Evidence of In-Flight Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 Despite Predeparture Testing. Emerg Infect Dis. Jan 2021.
- Murphy N, et al. A Large National Outbreak of COVID-19 Linked to Air Travel, Ireland, Summer 2020. Euro Surveill. Oct 2020.
- Speake H, et al. Flight-Associated Transmission of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 Corroborated by Whole-Genome Sequencing. Emerg Infect Dis. Sep 2020.
- Khanh NC, et al. Transmission of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 During Long Flight. Emerging Infect Dis. Sep 2020.
- Choi EM, et al. In-Flight Transmission of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2. Emerg Infect Dis. Sep 2020.
- Pavli A, et al. In-Flight Transmission of COVID-19 on Flights to Greece: An Epidemiological Analysis. Travel Med Infect Dis. Sep 2020.
- Chau NVV, et al. Superspreading Event of SARS-CoV-2 Infection at a Bar, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam. Emerg Infect Dis. Oct 2020.
- Muller N, et al. Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 Outbreak Related to a Nightclub, Germany, 2020. Emerg Infect Dis. Dec 2020.
- Kang CR, et al. Coronavirus Disease Exposure and Spread from Nightclubs, South Korea. Emerging Infect Dis. Jul 2020.
- Furuse Y, et al. Clusters of Coronavirus Disease in Communities, Japan, January-April 2020. Emerging Infect Dis. Jun 2020.
- Aerosol Concentrations in Public Spaces: Somsen GA, et al. Measurement of Small Droplet Aerosol Concentrations in Public Spaces Using Handheld Particle Counters. Phys Fluids. Dec 2020.
- Testing of Wastewater is Useful in Monitoring and Predicting Infection Rates
- Karthikeyan S, et al. High-Throughput Wastewater SARS-CoV-2 Detection Enables Forecasting of Community Infection Dynamics in San Diego County. mSystems. Mar 2021.
- Pérez-Cataluña A, et al. Detection Of Genomic Variants Of SARS-CoV-2 Circulating In Wastewater By High-Throughput Sequencing. Feb 2021. (Not Peer Reviewed)
- Melvin RG, et al. Predictive Power of SARS-CoV-2 Wastewater Surveillance for Diverse Populations across a Large Geographical Range. Jan 2020. (Not Peer Reviewed)
- Jahn K, et al. Detection of SARS-CoV-2 Variants in Switzerland by Genomic Analysis of Wastewater Samples. Jan 2021. (Not Peer Reviewed)
- Ahmed W, et al. SARS-CoV-2 RNA Monitoring in Wastewater as an Early Warning System for COVID-19 Transmission in the Community: A Temporal Case Study. Sci Total Environ. Dec 2020.
- Wurtzer S, et al. Evaluation of Lockdown Effect on SARS-CoV-2 Dynamics through Viral Genome Quantification in Waste Water, Greater Paris, France, 5 March to 23 April 2020. Euro Surveill. Dec 2020.
- Wu F, et al. SARS-CoV-2 Titers in Wastewater Are Higher than Expected from Clinically Confirmed Cases. mSystems. Jul 2020.
- Peccia J, et al. Measurement of SARS-CoV-2 RNA in Wastewater Tracks Community Infection Dynamics. Nat Biotechnol. Sep 2020.
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SARS-CoV-2 RNA concentrations in sludge were 0–2 d ahead of SARS-CoV-2 positive test results by date of specimen collection, 0–2 d ahead of the percentage of positive tests by date of specimen collection, 1–4 d ahead of local hospital admissions, and 6–8 d ahead of SARS-CoV-2 positive test results by reporting date.
- Household Transmission is Likely a Leading Cause of Infection, Occurs Quickly, and Predominantly Originates from Adults But Can Originate from Children
- Husby A, et al. SARS-CoV-2 Infection in Households With and Without Young Children: Nationwide Cohort Study. Mar 2021. (Not Peer Reviewed)
- Madewell ZJ, et al. Household Transmission of SARS-CoV-2: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. JAMA Netw Open. Dec 2020.
- Thompson HA, et al. MRC Centre for Global Infectious Disease Analysis Report 38: SARS-CoV-2 Setting-Specific Transmission Rates: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Imperial College London. Nov 2020.
- Grijalva CG, et al. Transmission of SARS-COV-2 Infections in Households — Tennessee and Wisconsin, April–September 2020. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. Oct 2020.
- Laws RL, et al. Symptoms and Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 Among Children — Utah and Wisconsin, March–May 2020. Pediatrics. Jan 2021.
- Fung HF, et al. The Household Secondary Attack Rate of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2): A Rapid Review. Clin Infect Dis. Oct 2020.
- Zhu Y, et al. A Meta-Analysis on the Role of Children in SARS-CoV-2 in Household Transmission Clusters. Clin Infect Dis. Dec 2020.
- Li F, et al. Household Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 and Risk Factors for Susceptibility and Infectivity in Wuhan: A Retrospective Observational Study. Lancet Infect Dis. Jan 2021.
- Dattner I, et al. The Role of Children in the Spread of COVID-19: Using Household Data From Bnei Brak, Israel, to Estimate the Relative Susceptibility and Infectivity of Children. PLoS Comput Biol. Feb 2021.
- Gaythorpe KAM, et al. MRC Centre for Global Infectious Disease Analysis Report 37: Children’s Role in the COVID-19 Pandemic: As Systematic Review of Susceptibility, Severity, and Transmissibility. Imperial College London. Nov 2020.
- Lee EC, et al. The Engines of SARS-CoV-2 Spread. Science. Oct 2020.
- Symptom Screening Fails to Identify Most Children with COVID-19 and Asymptomatic Children Appear to Shed Viral RNA for 2 to 3 Weeks
- Laws RL, et al. Symptoms and Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 Among Children — Utah and Wisconsin, March–May 2020. Pediatrics. Oct 2020.
- Han MS, et al. Clinical Characteristics and Viral RNA Detection in Children With Coronavirus Disease 2019 in the Republic of Korea. JAMA Pediatr. Aug 2020.
- DeBiasi RL, et al. Symptomatic and Asymptomatic Viral Shedding in Pediatric Patients Infected With Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2): Under the Surface. JAMA Pediatr. Aug 2020.
- Sayampanathan AA, et al. Infectivity of Asymptomatic Versus Symptomatic COVID-19. Lancet. Dec 2020.
- Laws RL, et al. Symptoms and Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 Among Children-Utah and Wisconsin, March-May 2020. Pediatrics. Oct 2020.
- Leidman E, et al. COVID-19 Trends Among Persons Aged 0–24 Years — United States, March 1–December 12, 2020. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. Feb 2021.
- Grech V, et al. Holidays Over: A Review of Actual COVID-19 School Outbreaks Up to September 2020. Early Hum Dev. Oct 2020.
- Hippich M, et al. A Public Health Antibody Screening Indicates a 6-Fold Higher SARS-CoV-2 Exposure Rate than Reported Cases in Children. Med (N Y). Oct 2020.
- Gilliam WS, et al. COVID-19 Transmission in US Child Care Programs. Pediatrics. Oct 2020. (Acompanying Commentary)
- Ismail SA, Saliba V, Lopez Bernal J, Ramsay ME, Ladhani SN. SARS-CoV-2 Infection and Transmission in Educational Settings: A Prospective, Cross-Sectional Analysis of Infection Clusters and Outbreaks in England. Lancet Infect Dis. Dec 2020.
- Rothamer DA, et al. Strategies to Minimize SARS-CoV-2 Transmission in Classroom Settings: Combined Impacts of Ventilation and Mask Effective Filtration Efficiency. Jan 2021. (Not Peer Reviewed)
- Viral Transmission and Shedding (Overview)
- Dismantling Myths on the Airborne Transmission of SARS-CoV-2
- SAGE: SARS-CoV-2 Transmission Routes and Environments
- CEBM Papers on the Transmission Dynamics of COVID-19
- SARS-CoV-2 is Shed During Respiration, Toileting, and Fomite Contact and is Commonly Aerosolized (Diagram)
- First10EM: COVID-19 Is Spread by Aerosols – An Evidence Review
- Santarpia JL, et al. Aerosol and Surface Contamination of SARS-CoV-2 Observed in Quarantine and Isolation Care. Sci Rep. Jul 2020.
- Liu H, et al. Simulation-Based Study of COVID-19 Outbreak Associated With Air-conditioning in a Restaurant Featured. Phys Fluids. Feb 2021.
- Kraay ANM, et al. Risk for Fomite-Mediated Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 in Child Daycares, Schools, Nursing Homes, and Offices. Emerg Infect Dis. Feb 2021.
- Hwang SE, et al. Possible Aerosol Transmission of COVID-19 Associated with an Outbreak in an Apartment in Seoul, South Korea, 2020. Int J Infect Dis. Dec 2020.
- Kwon KS, et al. Evidence of Long-Distance [Airborne] Droplet Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 by Direct Air Flow in a Restaurant in Korea. J Korean Med Sci. Nov 2020.
- Ma J, et al. COVID-19 Patients in Earlier Stages Exhaled Millions of SARS-CoV-2 Per Hour. Clin Infect Dis. Aug 2020.
- Chen W, et al. Short-Range Airborne Route Dominates Exposure of Respiratory Infection during Close Contact. Build Environ. Jun 2020.
- Riediker M, et al. Estimation of Viral Aerosol Emissions From Simulated Individuals With Asymptomatic to Moderate Coronavirus Disease 2019. JAMA Netw Open. Jul 2020.
- Richard M, et al. SARS-CoV-2 Is Transmitted via Contact and via the Air between Ferrets. Nat Commun. Jul 2020.
- Nissen K, et al. Long-Distance Airborne Dispersal of SARS-CoV-2 in COVID-19 Wards. Sci Rep. Nov 2020.
- Bahl P, et al. Airborne or Droplet Precautions for Health Workers Treating COVID-19? J Infect Dis. Apr 2020.
- Harvey AP, et al. Longitudinal Monitoring of SARS-CoV-2 RNA on High-Touch Surfaces in a Community Setting. Environ Sci Technol Lett. Dec 2020.
- Yekta R, et al. Food Products as Potential Carriers of SARS-CoV-2. Food Control. Nov 2020.
- Pang X, et al. Cold-Chain Food Contamination As the Possible Origin of COVID-19 Resurgence in Beijing. Natl Sci Rev. Oct 2020.
- Ben-Shmuel A, et al. Detection and Infectivity Potential of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) Environmental Contamination in Isolation Units and Quarantine Facilities. Clin Microbiol Infect. Sep 2020.
- Colaneri M, et al. Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 RNA Contamination of Inanimate Surfaces and Virus Viability in a Health Care Emergency Unit. Clin Microbiol Infect. May 2020.
- Chu DK, et al. Physical Distancing, Face Masks, and Eye Protection to Prevent Person-to-Person Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Lancet. Jun 2020.
- Meyerowitz EA, et al. Transmission of SARS-CoV-2: A Review of Viral, Host, and Environmental Factors. Ann Intern Med. Sep 2020.
- SARS-CoV-2 Can Remain Viable and Infectious in Airborne Aerosols for Hours and Viable on Surfaces for Days
- Morawska L, et al. It is Time to Address Airborne Transmission of COVID-19. Clin Infect Dis. Jul 2020. (SBM Summary)
- Azimi P, et al. Mechanistic Transmission Modeling of COVID-19 on the Diamond Princess Cruise Ship Demonstrates the Importance of Aerosol Transmission. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. Feb 2021.
- De Man P, et al. Outbreak of COVID-19 in a Nursing Home Associated with Aerosol Transmission as a Result of Inadequate Ventilation. Clin Infect Dis. Aug 2020.
- Dumont-Leblond N, et al. Positive No-Touch Surfaces and Undetectable SARS-CoV-2 Aerosols in Long-term Care Facilities: An Attempt to Understand the Contributing Factors and the Importance of Timing in Air Sampling Campaigns. Am J Infect Control. Feb 2021.
- Shen Y, et al. Community Outbreak Investigation of SARS-CoV-2 Transmission Among Bus Riders in Eastern China. JAMA Intern Med. Sep 2020.
- Liu Y, et al. Aerodynamic Analysis of SARS-CoV-2 in Two Wuhan Hospitals. Nature. Apr 2020.
- Lednicky JA, et al. Viable SARS-CoV-2 in the Air of a Hospital Room with COVID-19 Patients. Int J Infect Dis. Sep 2020.
- Birgand G, et al. Assessment of Air Contamination by SARS-CoV-2 in Hospital Settings. JAMA Netw Open. Dec 2020.
- Somsen GA, et al. Small Droplet Aerosols in Poorly Ventilated Spaces and SARS-CoV-2 Transmission. Lancet Respir Med. May 2020.
- Santarpia JL, et al. The Infectious Nature of Patient-Generated SARS-CoV-2 Aerosol. Jul 2020. (Not Peer Reviewed)
- Prather KA, et al. Airborne Transmission of SARS-CoV-2. Science. Oct 2020.
- Guo ZD, et al. Aerosol and Surface Distribution of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 in Hospital Wards, Wuhan, China, 2020. Emerging Infect Dis. Apr 2020.
- Chatterjee S, et al. Why Coronavirus Survives Longer on Impermeable Than Porous Surfaces. Phys Fluids. Feb 2021.
- Kampf G, et al. Ct Values and Infectivity of SARS-CoV-2 on Surfaces. Lancet Infect Dis. Nov 2020.
- Chin AWH, et al. Stability of SARS-CoV-2 in Different Environmental Conditions. Lancet Microbe. Apr 2020. (Summary by Virologist Ian Mackay)
- van Doremalen N, et al. Aerosol and Surface Stability of SARS-CoV-2 as Compared with SARS-CoV-1. N Engl J Med. Apr 2020.
- Dai M, et al. Long-Term Survival of SARS-CoV-2 on Salmon as a Source for International Transmission. J Infect Dis. Nov 2020.
- Riddell S, et al. The Effect of Temperature on Persistence of SARS-CoV-2 on Common Surfaces. Virol J. Oct 2020.
- Hirose R, et al. Survival of SARS-CoV-2 and Influenza Virus on the Human Skin: Importance of Hand Hygiene in COVID-19. Clin Infect Dis. Oct 2020.
- Van Rijn C, et al. Reducing Aerosol Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 in Hospital Elevators. Indoor Air. Sep 2020.
- Mathai V, et al. Airflows inside Passenger Cars and Implications for Airborne Disease Transmission. SciAdv. Dec 2020.
- Morris DH, et al. Mechanistic Theory Predicts the Effects of Temperature and Humidity on Inactivation of SARS-CoV-2 and Other Enveloped Viruses. Dec 2020. (Not Peer Reviewed)
- Outdoor Transmission: Bulfone TC, et al. Outdoor Transmission of SARS-Cov-2 and Other Respiratory Viruses, A Systematic Review. J Infect Dis. Nov 2020.
- Döhla M, et al. SARS-CoV-2 in Environmental Samples of Quarantined Households. Jun 2020. (Not Peer Reviewed)
- The Mean Incubation Period of COVID-19 is 5.7 Days (Diagram)
- Wassie GT, et al. Incubation Period of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Novel Coronavirus 2 that Causes Coronavirus Disease 2019: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Curr Ther Res Clin Exp. Oct 2020.
- Lauer SA, et al. The Incubation Period of Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) From Publicly Reported Confirmed Cases: Estimation and Application. Ann Intern Med. May 2020.
- Backer JA, et al. Incubation Period of 2019 Novel Coronavirus (2019-nCoV) Infections Among Travelers from Wuhan, China, 20-28 January 2020. Euro Surveill. Feb 2020.
- Linton NM, et al. Incubation Period and Other Epidemiological Characteristics of 2019 Novel Coronavirus Infections with Right Truncation: A Statistical Analysis of Publicly Available Case Data. J Clin Med. Feb 2020.
- Nelson EJ, et al. SARS-CoV-2 Positivity on or After 9 Days Among Quarantined Student Contacts of Confirmed Cases. JAMA. Feb 2021.
- Li Q, et al. Early Transmission Dynamics in Wuhan, China, of Novel Coronavirus-Infected Pneumonia. N Engl J Med. Mar 2020.
- Viral Load Peaks in the Early Phase (~1 d Before Symptom Onset) with Upper Respiratory Viral Shedding Peaking 4-6 Days After Symptom Onset; Viral Load May Be Correlated with Severity (Diagram)
- Edwards DA, et al. Exhaled Aerosol Increases With COVID-19 Infection, Age, and Obesity. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. Feb 2021.
- Néant N, et al. Modeling SARS-CoV-2 Viral Kinetics and Association with Mortality in Hospitalized Patients from the French COVID Cohort. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. Feb 2021.
- Cevik M, et al. SARS-CoV-2, SARS-CoV, and MERS-CoV Viral Load Dynamics, Duration of Viral Shedding, and Infectiousness: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Lancet Microbe. Nov 2020.
- Fontana L, et al. Understanding Viral Shedding of SARS-CoV-2: Review of Current Literature. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. Oct 2020.
- Wölfel R, et al. Virological Assessment of Hospitalized Patients with COVID-2019. Nature. Apr 2020.
- To KK, et al. Temporal Profiles of Viral Load in Posterior Oropharyngeal Saliva Samples and Serum Antibody Responses During Infection by SARS-CoV-2: An Observational Cohort Study. Lancet Infect Dis. Mar 2020.
- Liu Y, et al. Viral Dynamics in Mild and Severe Cases of COVID-19. Lancet Infect Dis. Mar 2020.
- CEBM Review: SARS-CoV-2 Viral Load and the Severity of COVID-19 (Mar 2020)
- Zheng S, et al. Viral Load Dynamics and Disease Severity in Patients Infected with SARS-CoV-2 in Zhejiang Province, China, January-March 2020: Retrospective Cohort Study. BMJ. Apr 2020.
- Jacot D. Viral Load of SARS-CoV-2 Across Patients and Compared to Other Respiratory Viruses. Microbes Infect. Sep 2020.
- Marks M, et al. Transmission of COVID-19 in 282 Clusters in Catalonia, Spain: A Cohort Study. Lancet Infect Dis. Feb 2021.
- Kissler SM, et al. Viral Dynamics of SARS-CoV-2 Infection and the Predictive Value of Repeat Testing. Oct 2020. (Not Peer Reviewed)
- Silva J, et al. Saliva Viral Load Is a Dynamic Unifying Correlate of COVID-19 Severity and Mortality. Jan 2021. (Not Peer Reviewed)
- Westblade LF, et al. SARS-CoV-2 Viral Load Predicts Mortality in Patients with and without Cancer Who Are Hospitalized with COVID-19. Cancer Cell. Sep 2020.
- Pujadas E, et al. SARS-CoV-2 Viral Load Predicts COVID-19 Mortality. Lancet Respir Med. Aug 2020.
- Kociolek LK, et al. Comparison of Upper Respiratory Viral Load Distributions in Asymptomatic and Symptomatic Children Diagnosed with SARS-CoV-2 Infection in Pediatric Hospital Testing Programs. J Clin Microbiol. Oct 2020.
- SARS-CoV-2 is Transmitted by Presymptomatic and Asymptomatic Individuals; Asymptomatic Cases Account for ~20–33% of All Infections
- Subramanian R, et al. Quantifying Asymptomatic Infection and Transmission of COVID-19 in New York City Using Observed Cases, Serology, and Testing Capacity. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. Feb 2021.
- Oran DP, Topol EJ. The Proportion of SARS-CoV-2 Infections That Are Asymptomatic. Ann Intern Med. Jan 2021.
- Chen C, et al. The Epidemiological and Radiographical Characteristics of Asymptomatic Infections with the Novel Coronavirus (COVID-19): A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Int J Infect Dis. Jan 2021.
- Johansson MA, et al. SARS-CoV-2 Transmission From People Without COVID-19 Symptoms. JAMA Netw Open. Jan 2021.
- Ng OT, et al. SARS-CoV-2 Seroprevalence and Transmission Risk Factors among High-Risk Close Contacts: A Retrospective Cohort Study. Lancet Infect Dis. Nov 2020.
- Long Q, et al. Clinical and Immunological Assessment of Asymptomatic SARS-CoV-2 Infections. Nat Med. Jun 2020.
- Yanes-Lane M, et al. Proportion of Asymptomatic Infection among COVID-19 Positive Persons and Their Transmission Potential: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. PLoS One. Nov 2020.
- Chau NVV, et al. The Natural History and Transmission Potential of Asymptomatic SARS-CoV-2 infection. Clin Infect Dis. Jun 2020.
- Oran DP, et al. Prevalence of Asymptomatic SARS-CoV-2 Infection: A Narrative Review. Ann Intern Med. Jun 2020.
- Lee S, et al. Clinical Course and Molecular Viral Shedding Among Asymptomatic and Symptomatic Patients With SARS-CoV-2 Infection in a Community Treatment Center in the Republic of Korea. JAMA Intern Med. Aug 2020.
- Arons MM, et al. Presymptomatic SARS-CoV-2 Infections and Transmission in a Skilled Nursing Facility. N Engl J Med. Apr 2020.
- Cheng HY, Jian SW, Liu DP, et al. Contact Tracing Assessment of COVID-19 Transmission Dynamics in Taiwan and Risk at Different Exposure Periods Before and After Symptom Onset. JAMA Intern Med. May 2020.
- Yang R, et al. Comparison of Clinical Characteristics of Patients with Asymptomatic vs Symptomatic Coronavirus Disease 2019 in Wuhan, China. JAMA Netw Open. May 2020.
- Ing AJ, et al. COVID-19: In the Footsteps of Ernest Shackleton. Thorax. May 2020.
- Furukawa NW, et al. Evidence Supporting Transmission of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 While Presymptomatic or Asymptomatic. Emerging Infect Dis. May 2020.
- Li R, et al. Substantial Undocumented Infection Facilitates the Rapid Dissemination of Novel Coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2). Science. Mar 2020
- He X, et al. Temporal Dynamics in Viral Shedding and Transmissibility of COVID-19. Nat Med. Apr 2020.
- Sakurai A, et al. Natural History of Asymptomatic SARS-CoV-2 Infection. N Engl J Med. Jun 2020.
- Buitrago-Garcia D, et al. Occurrence and Transmission Potential of Asymptomatic and Presymptomatic SARS-CoV-2 Infections: A Living Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. PLoS Med. Sep 2020.
- Lavezzo E, et al. Suppression of a SARS-CoV-2 Outbreak in the Italian Municipality of Vo’. Nature. Jun 2020.
- World Health Organization. Scientific Brief: Transmission of SARS-CoV-2: Implications for Infection Prevention Precautions. WHO; Jul 2020.
- Symptomatic Neonates, Children, and Teenagers Shed Infectious SARS-CoV-2
- L’Huillier AG, et al. Culture-Competent SARS-CoV-2 in Nasopharynx of Symptomatic Neonates, Children, and Adolescents. Emerging Infect Dis. Jun 2020.
- Park YJ, et al. Contact Tracing during Coronavirus Disease Outbreak, South Korea, 2020. Emerging Infect Dis. Jul 2020.
- Detection of Viral RNA via PCR Following Symptom Resolution Does Not Indicate Infectiousness; Mild Patients Are Generally No Longer Infectious 10 Days After Diagnosis, Severe Patients 20 Days After Diagnosis
- Kim M-C, et al. Duration of Culturable SARS-Cov-2 in Hospitalized Patients with COVID-19. N Engl J Med. Jan 2021.
- Vibholm LK, et al. SARS-CoV-2 Persistence Is Associated with Antigen-Specific CD8 T-Cell Responses. EBioMedicine. Jan 2021.
- Public Health Agency of Canada. How Long Are People with COVID-19 Infectious? Can Commun Dis Rep. Dec 2020.
- Liotti FM, et al. Assessment of SARS-CoV-2 RNA Test Results Among Patients Who Recovered From COVID-19 With Prior Negative Results. JAMA Intern Med. Nov 2020.
- Denning DW, et al. Non-Infectious Status Indicated by Detectable IgG Antibody to SARS-CoV-2. Br Dent J. Oct 2020.
- Chen S, et al. Epidemiological and Clinical Findings of Short-Term Recurrence of SARS-CoV-2 RNA PCR Positivity in 1282 Discharged COVID-19 Cases: A Multi-Center, Retrospective, Observational Study. Open Forum Infect Dis. Sep 2020.
- Korean CDC. Findings From Investigation and Analysis of Re-positive Cases. May 2020.
- Positive post-discharge PCR tests are due to non-infectious viral fragments. As such, KCDC has stopped isolating re-positive individuals.
- Widders A, et al. SARS-CoV-2: The Viral Shedding vs Infectivity Dilemma. Infect Dis Health. May 2020.
- Hu R, et al. Recurrent Positive Reverse Transcriptase-Polymerase Chain Reaction Results for Coronavirus Disease 2019 in Patients Discharged From a Hospital in China. JAMA Netw Open. May 2020.
- Molina LP, et al. Prolonged Detection of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) RNA in an Obstetric Patient with Antibody Seroconversion. Obstet Gynecol. Jul 2020.
- SARS-CoV-2 RNA Has Been Found in Stool, Indicating the Potential for Fecal-Oral Transmission
- van Doorn AS, et al. Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis: SARS-CoV-2 Stool Testing and the Potential for Faecal-Oral Transmission. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. Aug 2020.
- Tao W, et al. Re-Detectable Positive SARS-CoV-2 RNA Tests in Patients Who Recovered from COVID-19 with Intestinal Infection. Protein Cell. Sep 2020.
- Zhao F, et al. The Time Sequences of Respiratory and Rectal Viral Shedding in Patients With Coronavirus Disease 2019. Gastroenterology. Sep 2020.
- Du P, et al. Specific Re-Distribution of SARS-CoV-2 Variants in the Respiratory System and Intestinal Tract. Clin Infect Dis. Oct 2020.
- Yuan J, et al. Sewage as a Possible Transmission Vehicle during a Coronavirus Disease 2019 Outbreak in a Densely Populated Community: Guangzhou, China, April 2020. Clin Infect Dis. Oct 2020.
- Xiao F, et al. Evidence for Gastrointestinal Infection of SARS-CoV-2. Gastroenterology. Mar 2020.
- Xu Y, et al. Characteristics of Pediatric SARS-CoV-2 Infection and Potential Evidence for Persistent Fecal Viral Shedding. Nat Med. Mar 2020.
- Wang W, et al. Detection of SARS-CoV-2 in Different Types of Clinical Specimens. JAMA. Mar 2020
- Wu Y, et al. Prolonged Presence of SARS-CoV-2 Viral RNA in Faecal Samples. Lancet Gastroenterol Hepatol. Mar 2020.
- Hindson J. COVID-19: Faecal-oral Transmission? Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol. Mar 2020.
- Biting Insects Do Not Pose a SARS-CoV-2 Transmission Risk to Humans or Animals
- Balaraman V, et al. Susceptibility of Midge and Mosquito Vectors to SARS-CoV-2 by Natural Route of Infection. Sep 2020. (Not Peer Reviewed)
- No Evidence that Seasonality or Warmer Temperatures Reduce Transmission of SARS-CoV-2
- Jamil T, et al. No Evidence for Temperature-Dependence of the COVID-19 Epidemic. Front Public Health. Aug 2020.
- Poirier C, et al. The Role of Environmental Factors on Transmission Rates of the COVID-19 Outbreak: An Initial Assessment in Two Spatial Scales. Sci Rep. Oct 2020.
- Jüni P, et al. Impact of Climate and Public Health Interventions on the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Prospective Cohort Study. CMAJ. May 2020.
- O’Reilly K, et al. Effective Transmission Across the Globe: The Role of Climate in COVID-19 Mitigation Strategies. Lancet Planet Health. May 2020.
- Viral Dynamics and Immune Response
- General Immunopathology (Diagram 1 / Diagram 2 / Diagram 3 / Diagram 4)
- Context: Hope JL, et al. Lessons in Antiviral Immunity. Science. Jan 2021.
- Review: Sette A, et al. Adaptive Immunity to SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19. Cell. Jan 2021.
- Review: Schultze JL, et al. COVID-19 and the Human Innate Immune System. Cell. Feb 2021.
- Brodin P. Immune Determinants of COVID-19 Disease Presentation and Severity. Nat Med. Jan 2021,
- Yang L, et al. COVID-19: Immunopathogenesis and Immunotherapeutics. Sig Transduct Target Ther. Jul 2020.
- Dorward DA, et al. Tissue-specific Immunopathology in Fatal COVID-19. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. Nov 2020.
- Cevik M, et al. Virology, Transmission, and Pathogenesis of SARS-CoV-2. BMJ. Oct 2020.
- Poland GA, et al. SARS-CoV-2 Immunity: Review and Applications to Phase 3 Vaccine Candidates. Lancet. Oct 2020.
- Kuri-Cervantes L, et al. Comprehensive Mapping of Immune Perturbations Associated with Severe COVID-19. Sci Immunol. Jul 2020.
- Pierce CA, et al. Immune Responses to SARS-CoV-2 Infection in Hospitalized Pediatric and Adult Patients. Sci Transl Med. Sep 2020.
- Moderbacher, CR et al. Antigen-Specific Adaptive Immunity to SARS-CoV-2 in Acute COVID-19 and Associations with Age and Disease Severity. Cell. Sep 2020.
- Galani I-E, et al. Untuned Antiviral Immunity in COVID-19 Revealed by Temporal Type I/III Interferon Patterns and Flu Comparison. Nat Immunol. Dec 2020.
- Hou YJ, et al. SARS-CoV-2 Reverse Genetics Reveals a Variable Infection Gradient in the Respiratory Tract. Cell. May 2020.
- Guo L, et al. Profiling Early Humoral Response to Diagnose Novel Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19). Clin Infect Dis. Mar 2020.
- Thevarajan I, et al. Breadth of Concomitant Immune Responses Prior to Patient Recovery: A Case Report of Non-severe COVID-19. Nat Med. Mar 2020.
- Takahashi T, et al. Sex Differences in Immune Responses. Science. 2021.
- Kusnadi A, et al. Severely Ill COVID-19 Patients Display Impaired Exhaustion Features in SARS-CoV-2-Reactive CD8+ T Cells. Sci Immunol. Jan 2021.
- Grant RA, et al. Circuits Between Infected Macrophages and T Cells in SARS-CoV-2 Pneumonia. Nature. Jan 2021.
- Combes AJ, et al. Global Absence and Targeting of Protective Immune States in Severe COVID-19. Nature. Jan 2021.
- Rosa A, et al. SARS-CoV-2 Recruits a Haem Metabolite to Evade Antibody Immunity. Jan 2021. (Not Peer Reviewed)
- Mucosal Immunity: Russell MW, et al. Mucosal Immunity in COVID-19: A Neglected but Critical Aspect of SARS-CoV-2 Infection. Front Immunol. Nov 2020. (Context)
- Mucosal Immunity: Flament H, et al. Outcome of SARS-CoV-2 Infection is Linked to MAIT Cell Activation and Cytotoxicity. Nat Immunol. Feb 2021.
- Role of Antibody Glycosylation: MD Larsen, et al. Afucosylated IgG Characterizes Enveloped Viral Responses and Correlates with COVID-19 Severity. Science. Dec 2020.
- Role of the Mononuclear Phagocyte System: Kvedaraite E, et al. Major Alterations in the Mononuclear Phagocyte Landscape Associated with COVID-19 Severity. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. Jan 2021.
- IgG Antibodies and Mortality: Joyner MJ, et al. Convalescent Plasma Antibody Levels and the Risk of Death from COVID-19. N Engl J Med. Jan 2021.
- Humans Produce Neutralizing Antibodies to SARS-CoV-2 (Diagram)
- Context: Pecetta S, et al. Antibodies, Epicenter of SARS-CoV-2 Immunology. Cell Death Differ. Jan 2021.
- Weisberg SP, et al. Distinct Antibody Responses to SARS-CoV-2 in Children and Adults Across the COVID-19 Clinical Spectrum. Nat Immunol. Nov 2020.
- Ju B, et al. Human Neutralizing Antibodies Elicited by SARS-CoV-2 Infection. Nature. May 2020.
- Sterlin D, et al. IgA Dominates the Early Neutralizing Antibody Response to SARS-CoV-2. Sci Transl Med. Dec 2020.
- Wang Z, et al. Enhanced SARS-CoV-2 Neutralization by Dimeric IgA. Sci Transl Med. Dec 2020.
- Barnes CO, et al. SARS-CoV-2 Neutralizing Antibody Structures Inform Therapeutic Strategies. Nature. Oct 2020.
- Wu F, et al. Evaluating the Association of Clinical Characteristics With Neutralizing Antibody Levels in Patients Who Have Recovered From Mild COVID-19 in Shanghai, China. JAMA Intern Med. Aug 2020.
- Shi R, et al. A Human Neutralizing Antibody Targets the Receptor Binding Site of SARS-CoV-2. Nature. May 2020.
- Addetia A, et al. Neutralizing Antibodies Correlate with Protection from SARS-CoV-2 in Humans during a Fishery Vessel Outbreak with High Attack Rate. J Clin Microbiol. Aug 2020.
- Isho B, et al. Persistence of Serum and Saliva Antibody Responses to SARS-CoV-2 Spike Antigens in COVID-19 Patients. Sci Immunol. Oct 2020.
- Andreano E, et al. Extremely Potent Human Monoclonal Antibodies From COVID-19 Convalescent Patients. Cell. Feb 2021.
- Kim SI, et al. Stereotypic Neutralizing VH Antibodies Against SARS-CoV-2 Spike Protein Receptor Binding Domain in COVID-19 Patients and Healthy Individuals. Sci Transl Med. Jan 2021.
- McMahan K, et al. Correlates of Protection against SARS-CoV-2 in Rhesus Macaques. Nature. Dec 2020.
- Boonyaratanakornkit, J. Clinical, Laboratory, and Temporal Predictors of Neutralizing Antibodies to SARS-CoV-2 After COVID-19. Oct 2020. (Not Peer Reviewed)
- Magnitude of Neutralizing Antibody Response Correlates with Disease Severity; Late Onset May Be A Risk Factor for Disease Severity (Diagram)
- Ravichandran S, et al. Longitudinal Antibody Repertoire in “Mild” Versus “Severe” COVID-19 Patients Reveals Immune Markers Associated With Disease Severity and Resolution. Sci Adv. Mar 2021.
- Pradenas E, et al. Stable Neutralizing Antibody Levels Six Months After Mild and Severe COVID-19 Episode. Med. Jan 2021.
- Garcia-Beltran WF, et al. COVID-19 Neutralizing Antibodies Predict Disease Severity and Survival. Cell. Dec 2020.
- Milani GP, et al. Serological Follow-Up of SARS-CoV-2 Asymptomatic Subjects. Sci Rep. Nov 2020.
- Chen Y, et al. Quick COVID-19 Healers Sustain Anti-SARS-CoV-2 Antibody Production. Cell. Nov 2020.
- Seow J, et al. Longitudinal Observation and Decline of Neutralizing Antibody Responses in the Three Months Following SARS-CoV-2 Infection in Humans. Nat Microbiol. Oct 2020.
- Long Q, et al. Clinical and Immunological Assessment of Asymptomatic SARS-CoV-2 Infections. Nat Med. Jun 2020.
- Röltgen K, et al. Defining the Features and Duration of Antibody Responses to SARS-CoV-2 Infection Associated with Disease Severity and Outcome. “Sci Immunol. Dec 2020.
- Yao C, et al. Cell Type-Specific Immune Dysregulation in Severely Ill COVID-19 Patients. Cell Rep. Dec 2020.
- Ren L, et al. The Kinetics of Humoral Response and Its Relationship with the Disease Severity in COVID-19. Commun Biol. Dec 2020.
- Li K, et al. Dynamic Changes in Anti-SARS-CoV-2 Antibodies during SARS-CoV-2 Infection and Recovery from COVID-19. Nat Commun. Nov 2020.
- Mor M, et al. Multi-Clonal SARS-CoV-2 Neutralization by Antibodies Isolated From Severe COVID-19 Convalescent Donors. PLoS Pathog. Feb 2021.
- Presence of Anti-Spike or Anti-Nucleocapsid IgG Antibodies Is Associated with a Substantially Reduced Risk of SARS-CoV-2 Reinfection in the 6 Months Following Initial Infection
- Hansen CH, et al. Assessment of Protection Against Reinfection With SARS-CoV-2 Among 4 Million PCR-Tested Individuals in Denmark in 2020: A Population-Level Observational Study. Lancet. Mar 2021.
- Lumley SF, et al. Antibody Status and Incidence of SARS-Cov-2 Infection in Health Care Workers. N Engl J Med. Dec 2020.
- Hanrath at, et al. Prior SARS-CoV-2 Infection Is Associated with Protection against Symptomatic Reinfection. J Infect. Dec 2020.
- Harvey RA, et al. Real-World Data Suggest Antibody Positivity to SARS-CoV-2 Is Associated with a Decreased Risk of Future Infection. Dec 2020. (Not Peer Reviewed)
- Letizia AG, et al. SARS-CoV-2 Seropositivity and Subsequent Infection Risk in Healthy Young Adults: A Prospective Cohort Study. Jan 2020. (Not Peer Reviewed)
- Memory B Cell Response (Diagram)
- Sakharkar M, et al. Prolonged Evolution of the Human B Cell Response to SARS-CoV-2 Infection. Sci Immunol. Feb 2021.
- Quast I, et al. B Cell Memory: Understanding COVID-19. Immunity. Jan 2021.
- Gaebler C, et al. Evolution of Antibody Immunity to SARS-CoV-2. Nature. Jan 2021.
- Dan JM, et al. Immunological Memory to SARS-CoV-2 Assessed for Up to 8 Months After Infection. Science. Jan 2021.
- Hartlet GE, et al. Rapid Generation of Durable B Cell Memory to SARS-CoV-2 Spike and Nucleocapsid Proteins in COVID-19 and Convalescence. Sci Immunol. Dec 2020.
- Ogega CO, et al. Durable SARS-CoV-2 B Cell Immunity after Mild or Severe Disease. J Clin Invest. Feb 2021.
- Duration and Natural Decline of Neutralizing Antibody Response
- Seow J, et al. Longitudinal Observation and Decline of Neutralizing Antibody Responses in the Three Months Following SARS-CoV-2 Infection in Humans. Nat Microbiol. Oct 2020.
- Context: Edridge AWD, et al. Seasonal Coronavirus Protective Immunity is Short-lasting. Nat Med. Sep 2020.
- Context: Baumgarth N, et al. Antibody Responses to SARS-CoV-2: Let’s Stick to Known Knowns. J Immunol. Sep 2020.
- Context: Huang AT, et al. A Systematic Review of Antibody Mediated Immunity to Coronaviruses: Kinetics, Correlates of Protection, and Association with Severity. Nat Commun. Sep 2020.
- Marot S, et al. Rapid Decline of Neutralizing Antibodies Against SARS-CoV-2 Among Infected Healthcare Workers. Nat Commun. Feb 2021.
- Vanshylla K, et al. Kinetics and Correlates of the Neutralizing Antibody Response to SARS-CoV-2. Jan 2021. (Not Peer Reviewed)
- Choe PG, et al. Antibody Responses 8 Months After Asymptomatic or Mild SARS-CoV-2 Infection. Emerg Infect Dis. Dec 2020.
- Iyer AS, et al. Persistence and Decay of Human Antibody Responses to the Receptor Binding Domain of SARS-CoV-2 Spike Protein in COVID-19 Patients. Sci Immunol. Oct 2020.
- Wajnberg A, et al. Robust Neutralizing Antibodies to SARS-CoV-2 Infection Persist for Months. Science. Oct 2020. (Explanation by Co-author Florian Krammer)
- Choe PG, et al. Waning Antibody Responses in Asymptomatic and Symptomatic SARS-CoV-2 Infection. Emerg Infect Dis. Oct 2020.
- Ripperger TJ, et al. Orthogonal SARS-CoV-2 Serological Assays Enable Surveillance of Low-Prevalence Communities and Reveal Durable Humoral Immunity. Immunity. Oct 2020.
- Lee WT, et al. Neutralizing Antibody Responses in COVID-19 Convalescent Sera. J Infect Dis. Oct 2020.
- Beaudoin-Bussières G, et al. Decline of Humoral Responses against SARS-CoV-2 Spike in Convalescent Individuals. mBio. Oct 2020.
- Figueiredo‐Campos P, et al. Seroprevalence of Anti-SARS-CoV-2 Antibodies in COVID-19 Patients and Healthy Volunteers Up to Six Months Post Disease Onset. Eur J Immunol. Oct 2020.
- Patel MM, et al. Change in Antibodies to SARS-CoV-2 Over 60 Days Among Health Care Personnel in Nashville, Tennessee. JAMA. Sep 2020.
- Gudbjartsson DF, et al. Humoral Immune Response to SARS-CoV-2 in Iceland. N Engl J Med. Sep 2020.
- Ibarrondo FJ, et al. Rapid Decay of Anti–SARS-CoV-2 Antibodies in Persons with Mild COVID-19. N Engl J Med. Jul 2020.
- Long Q, et al. Clinical and Immunological Assessment of Asymptomatic SARS-CoV-2 Infections. Nat Med. Jun 2020.
- Kirkcaldy RD, et al. COVID-19 and Postinfection Immunity: Limited Evidence, Many Remaining Questions. JAMA. May 2020.
- Role of Autoantibodies
- Bhadelia N, et al. Distinct Autoimmune Antibody Signatures Between Hospitalized Acute COVID-19 Patients, SARS-CoV-2 Convalescent Individuals, and Unexposed Pre-Pandemic Controls. Jan 2021. (Not Peer Reviewed)
- Maier C, et al. Broad Auto-Reactive IgM Responses Are Common In Critically Ill COVID-19 Patients. Dec 2020. (Not Peer Reviewed)
- Zuniga M, et al. Autoimmunity to the Lung Protective Phospholipid-Binding Protein Annexin A2 Predicts Mortality Among Hospitalized COVID-19 Patients. Jan 2021. (Not Peer Reviewed)
- SARS-CoV-2 T Cell Immunity (Diagram 1 / Diagram 2)
- Dan JM, et al. Immunological Memory to SARS-CoV-2 Assessed for Up to 8 Months After Infection. Science. Jan 2021.
- Jarjour NN, et al. T Cell Memory: Understanding COVID-19. Immunity. Dec 2020.
- CEBM: What Is the Role of T Cells in COVID-19 Infection? Why Immunity Is about More than Antibodies.
- Reynolds CJ, et al. Discordant Neutralizing Antibody and T Cell Responses in Asymptomatic and Mild SARS-CoV-2 Infection. Sci Immunol. Dec 2020.
- Agerer B, et al. SARS-CoV-2 Mutations in MHC-I-Restricted Epitopes Evade CD8+ T Cell Responses. Sci Immunol. Mar 2021.
- Tarke A, et al. Negligible Impact of SARS-CoV-2 Variants on CD4+ and CD8+ T Cell Reactivity in COVID-19 Exposed Donors and Vaccines. Mar 2021. (Not Peer Reviewed)
- Tarke A, et al. Comprehensive Analysis of T Cell Immunodominance and Immunoprevalence of SARS-CoV-2 Epitopes in COVID-19 Cases. Cell Rep Med. Jan 2021.
- Perez-Potti A, et al. Deciphering the Ins and Outs of SARS-CoV-2-Specific T Cells. Nat Immunol. Nov 2020.
- Karlsson AC, et al. The Known Unknowns of T Cell Immunity to COVID-19. Sci Immunol. Nov 2020.
- Stephens DS, et al. COVID-19 and the Path to Immunity. JAMA. Sep 2020.
- Sekine, T, et al. Robust T Cell Immunity in Convalescent Individuals with Asymptomatic or Mild COVID-19. Cell. Aug 2020.
- Zuo J, et al. Robust SARS-CoV-2-Specific T-Cell Immunity Is Maintained at 6 Months Following Primary Infection. Nov 2020. (Not Peer Reviewed)
- Dan JM, et al. Immunological Memory to SARS-CoV-2 Assessed for Greater than Six Months after Infection. Nov 2020. (Not Peer Reviewed)
- Wyllie D, et al. SARS-CoV-2 Responsive T Cell Numbers Are Associated with Protection from COVID-19: A Prospective Cohort Study in Keyworkers. Nov 2020. (Not Peer Reviewed)
- Schulien I, et al. Characterization of Pre-Existing and Induced SARS-CoV-2-Specific CD8+ T Cells. Nat Med. Nov 2020.
- Lipsitch M, et al. Cross-Reactive Memory T Cells and Herd Immunity to SARS-CoV-2. Nat Rev Immunol. Oct 2020.
- Schwarzkopf S, et al. Cellular Immunity in COVID-19 Convalescents with Pcr-Confirmed Infection but with Undetectable SARS-CoV-2–Specific IgG. Emerg Infect Dis. Oct 2020.
- Gutierrez L, et al. Deciphering the TCR Repertoire to Solve the COVID-19 Mystery. Trends Pharmacol Sci. Jun 2020.
- Ni L, et al. Detection of SARS-CoV-2-Specific Humoral and Cellular Immunity in COVID-19 Convalescent Individuals. Immunity. May 2020.
- Altmann DM, et al. SARS-CoV-2 T Cell Immunity: Specificity, Function, Durability, and Role in Protection. Sci Immunol. Jul 2020.
- Weiskopf D, et al. Phenotype and Kinetics of SARS-CoV-2-Specific T Cells in COVID-19 Patients with Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome. Sci Immunol. Jun 2020.
- Grifoni A, et al. Targets of T Cell Responses to SARS-CoV-2 Coronavirus in Humans with COVID-19 Disease and Unexposed Individuals. Cell. May 2020.
- Cox RJ, et al. Not Just Antibodies: B Cells and T Cells Mediate Immunity to COVID-19. Nat Rev Immunol. Aug 2020.
- Gallais F, et al. Intrafamilial Exposure to SARS-CoV-2 Induces Cellular Immune Response without Seroconversion. Emerg Infect Dis. Nov 2020.
- Infection with Betacoronaviruses Appears to Induce Multispecific and Long-Lasting T Cell Immunity to the Structural Nucleocapsid Protein, that Appears to Neutralize SARS-CoV-2; Antibodies Generally Not Cross Reactive
- Harvey RA, et al. Association of SARS-CoV-2 Seropositive Antibody Test With Risk of Future Infection. JAMA Intern Med. Feb 2021. (Accompanying Commentary)
- Ng KW, et al. Preexisting and De Novo Humoral Immunity to SARS-CoV-2 in Humans. Science. Nov 2020.
- Tso FY, et al. High Prevalence of Pre-Existing Serological Cross-Reactivity Against SARS-CoV-2 in Sub-Sahara Africa. Int J Infect Dis. Nov 2020.
- Schulien I, et al. Characterization of Pre-Existing and Induced SARS-CoV-2-Specific CD8+ T Cells. Nat Med. Nov 2020.
- Sagar M, et al. Recent Endemic Coronavirus Infection Is Associated with Less Severe COVID-19. J Clin Investig. Sep 2020.
- Anderson EM, et al. Seasonal Human Coronavirus Antibodies Are Boosted Upon SARS-CoV-2 Infection but Not Associated With Protection. Cell. Feb 2021.
- Schwaiger J, et al. No SARS-CoV-2 Neutralization by Intravenous Immunoglobulins Produced from Plasma Collected before the 2020 Pandemic. J Infect Dis. Sep 2020.
- Le Bert, N. SARS-CoV-2-Specific T Cell Immunity in Cases of COVID-19 and SARS, and Uninfected Controls. Nature. Jul 2020.
- Dugas M, et al. Less Severe Course of COVID-19 Is Associated With Elevated Levels of Antibodies Against Seasonal Human Coronaviruses OC43 and HKU1 (HCoV OC43, HCoV HKU1). Int J Infect Dis. Feb 2021.
- Poston D, et al. Absence of SARS-CoV-2 Neutralizing Activity in Pre-Pandemic Sera from Individuals with Recent Seasonal Coronavirus Infection. Oct 2020. (Not Peer Reviewed)
- Guthmiller JJ, et al. Remembering Seasonal Coronaviruses. Science. Dec 2020.
- Select Reports of Reinfection
- Adrielle dos Santos L, et al. Recurrent COVID-19 including Evidence of Reinfection and Enhanced Severity in Thirty Brazilian Healthcare Workers. J Infect. Feb 2021.
- 501Y.V2: Zucman N, et al. Severe Reinfection with South African SARS-CoV-2 Variant 501Y.V2: A Case Report. Clin Infect Dis. Feb 2021.
- Selhorst P, et al. Symptomatic SARS-CoV-2 Reinfection of a Health Care Worker in a Belgian Nosocomial Outbreak Despite Primary Neutralizing Antibody Response. Clin Infect Dis. Dec 2020.
- Lee J-S, et al. Evidence of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 Reinfection After Recovery from Mild Coronavirus Disease 2019. Clin Infect Dis. Nov 2020.
- Tillett R, et al. Genomic Evidence for Reinfection with SARS-CoV-2: A Case Study. Lancet Infect Dis. Oct 2020. (Accompanying Commentary: What Reinfections Mean for COVID-19)
- Mulder M, et al. Reinfection of SARS-CoV-2 in an Immunocompromised Patient: A Case Report. Clin Infect Dis. Oct 2020.
- Goldman JD, et al. Reinfection with SARS-CoV-2 and Failure of Humoral Immunity: A Case Report. Sep 2020. (Not Peer Reviewed)
- Larson D, et al. A Case of Early Re-infection with SARS-CoV-2. Clin Infect Dis. Sep 2020.
- Gupta V, et al. Asymptomatic Reinfection in Two Healthcare Workers from India with Genetically Distinct SARS-CoV-2. Clin Infect Dis. Sep 2020.
- To KK, et al. COVID-19 Re-Infection by a Phylogenetically Distinct SARS-Coronavirus-2 Strain Confirmed by Whole Genome Sequencing. Clin Infect Dis. Aug 2020.
- Tomassini S, et al. Setting the Criteria for SARS-CoV-2 Reinfection – Six Possible Cases. J Infect. Aug 2020.
- Duggan NM, et al. A Case Report of Possible Novel Coronavirus 2019 Reinfection. Am J Emerg Med. Jul 2020.
- Non-medical mask-wearing by 75% of the population reduced infections, hospitalizations, and deaths by 37.7%, 44.2%, and 47.2%, respectively.
- Face masks reduce the daily growth rate of reported infections by around 47%.
- COVID-19 has likely become the leading cause of death—surpassing unintentional overdoses—among young adults aged 25-44 in some areas of the United States during substantial COVID-19 outbreaks.
- Children demonstrate six-fold higher seroprevalence than reported cases.
- The authors find evidence that SARS-CoV-2 spreads through both direct (droplet and contact) as well as indirect contact (fomites and airborne) are indicated, supporting the use of airborne isolation precautions. Also see, UCSF 7/16 Grand Rounds on SARS-CoV-2 Transmission.
- Viable SARS-CoV-2 can be recovered from salmon up to 10 days at 0-4°C storage (shipping temperature) or 3 days at 25°C storage.
- The half-life of infectious SARS-CoV-2 on surfaces was 1.7–2.7 days at 20°C and decreased to ≤3 hours at 40°C.
- SARS-CoV-2 survival time on human skin is ~9 hours, is completely inactivated within 15 seconds by 80% ethanol.
- Viral load of index cases was a leading driver of SARS-CoV-2 transmission.
- The authors report a significant independent association between viral load and mortality and found a 7% increase in hazard for each log transformed copy per mL.
- Children with asymptomatic SARS-CoV-2 infection had lower levels of virus in the nasopharynx/oropharynx than symptomatic children.
- Presymptomatic and asymptomatic cases together comprise at least 50% of the force of infection at the outbreak peak.
- The median time from symptom onset to viral clearance in culture was 7 days (95% CI, 5 to 10), and the median time from symptom onset to viral clearance on real-time RT-PCR was 34 days (lower boundary of the 95% CI, 24 days).
- Altered mucosal-associated invariant T cell functions due to IFN-α–IL-18 imbalance contribute to disease severity.
- Although persons with SARS-CoV-2 antibodies are largely protected, subsequent infection is possible for some persons due to lack of sterilizing immunity. Some re-infected individuals could have a similar capacity to transmit virus as those infected for the first time
- Memory B cell responses—responsible for protection from re-infection and are essential for effective vaccination—do not decay after 6.2 months, but instead continue to evolve, strongly suggestive of continued protective immunity.
- IgG to the Spike protein was relatively stable over 6+ months. Spike-specific memory B cells were more abundant at 6 months than at 1 month post symptom onset.
- The magnitude of the neutralizing antibody response appears to depend on disease severity, with lower peak antibody levels in individuals exhibiting milder disease. SARS-CoV-2 antibody response is typical of other acute viral infections, with an initial peak antibody response followed by declining levels. IgA and IgM antibodies approached baseline levels in some patients by 60 days after symptom onset, with IgG remaining high in most patients up to 94 days after onset.
- The authors monitored healthy individuals for more than 35 years and determined that reinfection with the same seasonal coronavirus occurred frequently at 12 months after infection and as early as 6 months post-infection.
- IgG to the Spike protein was relatively stable over 6+ months. Spike-specific memory B cells were more abundant at 6 months than at 1 month post symptom onset. SARS-CoV-2-specific CD4+ T cells and CD8+ T cells declined with a half-life of 3-5 months.
- Majority of individuals with mild or asymptomatic SARS-CoV-2 infection carry nAb complemented by multispecific T cell responses at 16-18 weeks following infection.